Proxima Centauri b and the question of habitability

The discovery of evidence of a planet in orbit around our nearest stellar neighbor, Proxima Centauri, has people all agog and with good reason. It’s something of a misnomer, however, to call the exoplanet Proxima Centauri b “Earth-like.” Rory Barnes, a professor in the Department of Astronomy and the Astrobiology Program at the University of Washington, points out that the planet’s mass is probably somewhere between 1.3 and five times that of Earth.

UW prof. Rory Barnes speaking at an Astronomy on
Tap Seattle event earlier this year. Photo: Greg Scheiderer.

“There’s a lot of excitement about this planet because it is so close in mass to the Earth, but we don’t actually know if it’s even rocky like the Earth,” said Barnes during a recent talk at the Pacific Science Center. Barnes, who uses computer modeling to study the habitability of exoplanets, noted that even though Proxima Centauri is the next closest star, it’s still pretty far away at 4.24 light years. If the Sun were the size of a baseball resting on home plate at Safeco Field, Barnes said Proxima Centauri b would be a grain of sand in New York City. Still, he noted there’s understandable excitement about the discovery.

“The reason why I think that this is the biggest exoplanet discovery since the discovery of exoplanets is because it is still very close, at least relatively speaking,” Barnes said. “We really have a chance, with this planet, to potentially observe its atmosphere and its surface and maybe start to try and sniff out the presence of life on that planet. Or not. We don’t know yet. But being so close, it gives us a shot.”

Not really “like” Earth

While Proxima Centauri b is about the mass of Earth, plenty else is different. It’s twenty times closer to its home star than Earth is to the Sun, and goes around that star in just 11.2 days. We know little else about it. The star has just 12 percent of the mass and 14 percent the radius of the Sun, and its brightness is just one one-thousandth that of the Sun.

“This is a small, dim star,” Barnes said.

Is there life there?

Life requires energy, some bioessential elements, and liquid water. The energy and elements are abundant in the universe, so Barnes says the key to finding life elsewhere is liquid water.

“When we think about exoplanets, we’re really going to focus, at least for now, on surface water,” Barnes said. “Not only is it going to be easier to see, but it’s going to be more similar to the Earth and that gives us a better shot at maybe being able to interpret the observations that we’re going to get.”

The desire to find liquid surface water on a planet led us to the concept of the “habitable zone” around a star, an area where the temperature would be right for liquid water to exist. Barnes said Proxima Centauri b is smack in the middle of the habitable zone.

“This is a dream planet for those of us who study this field,” he said, but added a caveat: “Being in the habitable zone does not mean you’re habitable. It is just the first step we need to get to.”

“The habitable zone is jargon, and it’s really misleading,” Barnes added. “I apologize for my field for inflicting it on you!”

Barnes said there are several threats to habitability for planets orbiting M dwarf stars like Proxima Centauri. With the habitable zone so close to the star, there is potential that stellar flares could blow away the atmosphere of a planet within it. Planets that close are probably tidally locked, too, but this isn’t a deal-breaker; their atmospheres might distribute heat and energy effectively. Tidal heating could cause problematic volcanism.

Barnes showed this chart demonstrating that while
Proxima Centauri b is now within the habitable zone, the
zone was once much further from the star.

The biggest threat to the habitability of Proxima Centauri b, according to Barnes, is that its star was once much bigger and brighter before it contracted into the dim, red phase it is in today. In the early years that would have meant that its habitable zone was out at a distance between .25 and .5 astronomical units, while Proxima Centauri b orbits at a mere .05 AU. Being so far inside the habitable zone after formation means that the planet could have lost all of its water and become a completely uninhabitable place like Venus. On the other hand, if Proxima Centauri b formed as something like Neptune, being so close to the star could have blasted away its hydrogen envelope.

“Maybe that planet could have actually transformed from an uninhabitable Neptune-like planet into a rocky planet like the Earth,” Barnes speculated. “This is what we at the University of Washington think is probably the best bet for how this planet could be habitable.”

Barnes is hopeful that the discovery of Proxima Centauri b will help boost support for the sorts of telescopes and observatories that can make the observations needed to learn more about this intriguing exoplanet and determine if it is habitable, and even inhabited.

While Barnes won’t give the odds of life there—there are way too many variables and so little we know right now—he sounds confident that we’ll find life somewhere. He noted that we’ve found life on Earth in the deep sea, extreme deserts, extreme cold, acidic environments, and under other harsh conditions.

“The realization that extreme life is everywhere is part of the astrobiological revolution that is occurring right now in science,” Barnes said. “This recognition that life finds a way gives us confidence as we go forward.”

Radioactivity is good for you

While most of us tend to think that radioactivity is dangerous, experts say that, like beer, it’s actually good for you in moderation. We learned this while drinking radioactive beer at Bad Jimmy’s Brewing Company in Ballard on Wednesday during the “radioactive edition” of Astronomy on Tap Seattle.

Radioactive beer

UW prof. Rory Barnes makes a point about radioactive beer
during his Astronomy on Tap talk at Bad Jimmy’s Brewing
Company on Wednesday, Jan. 20, 2016. Photo: Greg Scheiderer.

University of Washington astrobiology professor Rory Barnes did the math on the beer. Figuring that a pint is about 90 percent water, carbon is about ten percent of the rest. That works out to 4.5 grams, or about 200 billion carbon-14 atoms. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years, which Barnes said means that, in your glass, there’s about one atomic decay every second.

“You are all drinking radioactive beer,” he said. Nobody stopped. I was sipping on a red IPA which was delightful and may have been even a bit more radioactive than the others!

Barnes noted that while we think of Chernobyl or Fukushima when we think about radiation, the process of radioactive decay is pretty important.

Radioactivity is good

“If it weren’t for the radioactivity inside our planet we’d all be dead,” he said. Barnes explained that decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium inside the Earth produces about 50 terawatts of energy, or about 0.1 watt per square meter on the surface. That much energy could run our entire civilization if we could capture it. As it is, it drives geologic processes such as plate tectonics, which helps regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere.

“It’s really important that the planet does a good job of keeping it from building up to too high of a level or dropping down to too low of a level because then our Earth would not be habitable,” Barnes explained. “Without (plate tectonics) the carbon dioxide would either build up and our planet would roast or it would get drawn down and our planet would freeze.”

Earth is in a sweet spot as far as this internal energy goes. Mars generates less than half the energy Earth does and is geologically dead. Jupiter’s moon Io generates a whopping two watts per square meter and is wildly active volcanically. For life, conditions have to be just right.

Radioactivity may lead us to ET

Barnes said that this fact could help guide us to other planets that might be likely to harbor life. The trouble is that in order to determine a planet’s internal energy and radioactivity we would have to look inside a rock that is hundreds of light years away.

“It’s not really obvious how you do that, but that’s what we need to do,” he said. “I’m sorry to say that the answer is that we can’t at this point. This is the limit of our scientific research right now.”

The James Webb Space Telescope will be able to determine the elements in the atmospheres of distant planets. Barnes said it would make sense to use JWST to look at planets that are near where supernovae have occurred, because these stellar explosions spread the heavy elements needed for this sort of planetary energy generation.

Radioactivity and the ages of stars

UW postdoctoral research associate Charli
Sakari explains how the age of a star can
be determined by the presence of radioactive
elements. Photo: Greg Scheiderer.

UW astronomy post-doc Charli Sakari also uses radioactivity in her work. During her Astronomy on Tap talk she explained how she determines the makeup of stars by looking at spectra of the light they emit. Different elements leave a clear signature in the spectrum, absorption lines created when atoms in a star’s atmosphere absorb certain color wavelengths.

“If we measure how dark those lines are we can figure out how much of those elements is present in the atmospheres,” Sakari said.

It is especially informative to look for uranium and thorium.
“Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years, which is about the age of the Sun, whereas thorium-232 has a half life of 14 billion years,” Sakari explained. “These half-lives are long enough that we can use them to date the ages of the oldest stars in the universe.”

The oldest stars have few elements heavier than helium. Younger stars can contain many heavier elements fused in the cores of the generations of stars that preceded them.

Astronomy on Tap Seattle drew a big crowd to Bad Jimmy’s on a rainy Wednesday night. In fact astronomy and beer lovers were packed in so tightly, and were generating considerable warmth, that the staff popped the garage-type doors open to let in a little fresh air. One wag in the crowd speculated that the robust attendance may have been an indicator of the sorry state of network television. We would say that, in eleven months of events Astronomy on Tap, which is organized by astronomy graduate students at the UW, has delivered plenty of good information and tons of fun. The next gathering is scheduled for Feb. 24.